REPORTS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Moderator : Dr. J. T. Musiime
Rapporteur : Dr. U Feldmann
ISCTRC
Secretariat
The participation
of delegates from more than thirty AU Member States and of representatives of
eight international and regional organizations, including the four mandated
organizations (AU, FAO, IAEA and WHO), and of representatives of eleven
national, regional and international research and donor institutions and fora 1
networks, manifested their solidarity and support to the ISCTRC Conference.
More than lOO Research papers were presented at the 27th Conference of the
ISCTRC orally or by means of posters.
Two special
sessions included statements by national, regional and international
organizations, research- and donor institutions and fora 1 networks, and by
country representatives. Thirteen scientific sessions over the five-day
conference dealt with protozoology, entomology, human trypanosomosis, animal
trypanosomosis, vector control, socio-economics and community participation,
environment, land use and other GIS aided supporting techniques, and poster
presentations relevant to the above scientific sessions and to work by the
private sector.
A specific
recommendation made at the 25th meeting and Golden Jubilee conference of the
ISCTRC in
A highlight at the
26th ISCTRC Conference in
The theme of the
27th ISCTRC Conference was: To enhance
the formulation of national strategies for T &T intervention that are with
established regional policy and which would be the basis for specific national
and sub-regional action plans and projects for concrete T &T intervention
in the context of sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD).
The efforts by
FAO, WHO and FITCA to organize relevant satellite meetings in conjunction with
the 27th ISCTRC Conference, thus enabling more participants to
attend the meeting, were highly appreciated.
European Union (EU)
EU endorsed the
OECD 1 DAC international development targets for 2015, including to halve
poverty, reach 100% primary education and a 2/3 reduction of child mortality
rate, improve human rights and governance and reverse undesirable environmental
trends.
Poverty is complex
and multidimensional, encompasses political, economic and environmental
dimensions and its reduction requires coherence and synergies of aid, trade and
economic and political co-operations. The " Amsterdam Treaty"
confirmed poverty reduction as the central EU's development objective, whereby
the principles for cooperation remain a) sustainable, equitable and
participatory human and social development, b) respect of human rights, and c)
"ownership" (participation, dialogue and collaboration with all
partners).
According to the
EC Development Policy and Council Declaration in November 2000, the following
six priority areas were addressed (provided human rights, gender issues and
environment are appropriately addressed): 1. trade and development; 2. regional
co- operation and integration; 3. macro-economic support and social sectors; 4.
transport; 5. food security and sustainable rural development; and 6.
institutional capacity building and governance.
In the 60's
approaches to rural development were dominated by uncoordinated piecemeal
interventions with a focus on agriculture; in the 70's considerable efforts
were made to increase the links between agriculture and other key sectors; and
in the 80's support to rural development was mainly provided through
large-scale area-based integrated rural development programmes. With regards to
T &T programmes, the EU supported the RTTCP (1986-2000), FITCA (1999-2004)
PROCORDEL (2001-2004) and the ongoing ICPTV.
Meanwhile, rural
development is defined was an overarching concept or strategy (not as one or
several projects), which places emphasis on poverty reduction in the rural
economy. It is multi-sectoral by nature and integrates economic and social
sectors as well as services into a single strategy. It recognizes that the
rural-urban difference is not a dichotomy but a continuum.
Evolving
instruments that aid in the development of appropriate strategies for rural
development include National PRSPs, responding co-ordinate donor support
strategies, sector-wide approaches (SWAPs) offering advantages over traditional
projects, decentralization processes, which - wherever appropriate - are
considered to play a facilitating and catalyzing role, and urban-rural linkages
as they can provide new opportunities for poverty reduction.
EC supported rural
development efforts are long term, financially sustainable approaches that aim
at impacting on poverty and reflect
gender equality and environmental concerns. They are based on nationally owned
strategies for rural poverty reduction that are developed and implemented with
the involvement of relevant stakeholders.
The implementation
of EC supported rural development efforts at the national level is based on
country programming, which specifically refers to available national and rural
development / poverty reduction strategies, and reflects SWAPs, support to
civil society organisations and combines EC instruments at macro, meso and
micro levels. Increased national budget support would reflect relevant steps taken.
Country projects
against the T&T problem should be backed by an objective political will,
fit in a sector policy / strategy and optimise the geographical cover
(reflecting a prioritisation that is based on socio-economic impact). The
strategy for control measures should be formulated based on institutional,
technological and environmental criteria.
At the regional
level relevant actions include T &T projects which should fit a regional
strategy, institutionally respond to a regional body, ensure a regional added
value (not a compilation of national projects) and separate regional
"functions" from national ones.
Currently there
are very few references to rural development in many PRSPs. As a result very
little resources are allocated to rural development in the forthcoming years
under EDF and AILAIMEDA. In order to correct this and establish the
necessary prioritised policy and strategy framework, the veterinary and other
relevant services must assume a proactive role at the national level.
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization
Since the 26th
meeting of the ISCTRC, FAO - through the Programme Against African
Trypanosomosis (PAAT) and its international alliance comprising AU-IBAR, IAEA
and WHO - continued to promote, harmonise and build consensus on concrete,
integrated actions to combat tsetse and trypanosomosis (T &T). The
substantial progress achieved is underlined by: a) adoption of the PATTEC Plan
of Action as resolution 4/2001 by the 31st FAO Conference in
November 2001; b) the agreement on criteria and guidelines for the selection of
priority areas for T &T intervention, and the identification of the
Southern Rift Valley (SRV) of Ethiopia and the "cotton belt" of area
of Burkina Faso and Mali as first priority areas for joint international action
against T &T in the context of livestock - agriculture development; c) the
joint AU, FAO, IAEA and WHO press release in June 2002 calling for united
action against T &T; d) the formal declaration of IAEA in July 2002 to
adhere to PAAT; and e) the statement by the PAAT community, Nairobi, September
2002, recognising synergies and consensus among international organizations,
NARS, advanced research institutions and relevant institutes and donors ( e.g.
IFAD) regarding the policy, strategy and methodological approach to T &T
intervention.
This PAAT -
facilitated inter-agency entente and the harmonisation process were recognized
and encouraged by country representatives attending the 22nd
Regional Conference for Africa in
Technically
important was also the consensus reached on the area wide integrated pest
management approach (A W IPM) now placed in the broader context of human well-
being, poverty reduction and food security, with improved public health,
enhanced mixed livestock-crop farming development and sustainable utilization
of natural resources. AW IPM is not based on a single technology but makes use
of relevant trends and seasonal variations and brings together all T &T
control tools, including the application of SIT, as appropriate, to combat and
eliminate the diseases in livestock and humans.
A workshop was
organized to develop a draft concept note and a "road-map" for the
Ethiopian SRV, aiming at fund-generation for up-scaled field implementation. A
similar workshop is planned for the
Using additional
funds made available by IFAD, FAO is in the process to update and expand the
PAAT -Information system. Two publications were released under the PAAT
Technical and Scientific Series, and additional publications are in the
pipeline for 2004.
FAO and DFID have
initiated a study on "mapping benefits" from T &T intervention in
certain areas. F AO made available to collaborators in 13 T &T affected
countries more than 50 copies of the GIS software Arc View and Spatial Analyst,
and in collaboration with IAEA, organised a GIS workshop in
WHO – Word Health Organization
At the 26th
meeting of the ISCTRC, WHO announced the establishment of a WHO – Aventis
public-private partnership, which guarantees the availability of drugs against
human African trypanosomosis (HAT) and their provision free of charge for
patients in
Intensified and
extended surveillance and treatment activities allowed increased access to
diagnosis and treatment for the populations at risk of HAT. The increase of the
WHO- HAT team helped to raise access to diagnosis and treatment and the quality
of services provided. Based on a step-by-step elimination process, which was
agreed on at the World Health Assembly in 2002, WHO contended that it may be
possible in the forthcoming years to eliminate HAT in some countries,
particularly where technical capacities are pooled to obtain better efficiency.
The collaborative
efforts between the WHO-HAT programme and the WHO-TDR
research
activities were intensified under the WHO treatment and drug resistance
network. Based on the involvement the MSF's campaign for Access to Essential
Drugs, the recent establishment of the drugs for neglected disease initiative
(DNDi) with an office in Nairobi, the involvement of private companies and with
the contribution of the Gates Foundation, there is now new hope for availability
of new and safer drugs.
Although WHO
organises international training cuorses every year with various partners and
also implements in-service training courses, there is need for increased
efforts for relevant national and regional capacity building.
A
WHO-ICIPE-Government of Chad project that combines human surveillance and
treatment with vector control measures is a demonstration of the feasibility of
integrating measures against the human and the animal disease form of
trypanosomoses.
WHO continues
being a partner in the joint AU/FAO/IAEA/WHO PAAT network and also supports the
PATTEC initiative as is evidenced by a respective resolution at the World
Health Assembly in 2003.
IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
IAEA supports
Member States in their efforts against T &T through three main activities:
research and methods development (R&D); technical co-operation; and
establishment of standards and guidelines.
R&D is
conducted through "in-house" research and through Coordinated
Research Projects (CRPs) and included work on compatibility and behavioural tests relevant to the SIT; molecular tsetse
population genetics; a chilled-adult sterile male aerial release system;
refining a mechanised and standardized mass-holding and mass- feeding of large
tsetse colonies; and process and product (sterile males) quality assurance.
Regarding
technical cooperation projects one regional IAEA- TC project and eight national
TC projects are under implementation in
With regards to
normative issues IAEA closely coordinates its activities with AU-IBAR, FAO and
WHO along the PAAT-PATTEC harmonisation process. In addition, action was taken
towards the development of an internationally agreed, phased protocol for
eventually declaring zones free of the T &T problem. The 9th
meeting of the PAAT Advisory Group endorsed the initiative and recommended the
protocol to be internationally reviewed and eventually adopted.
In consultation
with PATTEC and the mandated international organizations IAEA obtained some
"seed funds" from the United Nations Fund for International
Partnerships that mainly will be used for fund raising for agreed T &T
priority intervention areas, of which the currently most advanced field is
located in the Southern Rift
OlE Office
International des Epizooties
The OlE was
created in 1924 in
OlE's work is done
though established working groups (wildlife diseases, animal production and
food safety and animal welfare) and through ad hoc groups, which
institutionally all cooperate with relevant groups / organizations including
WHO, FAO, IPPC, WTO, CAC, etc.
OIE's transparency
and knowledge of the global animal health situation enables the establishment
of an early warning system for emerging diseases and the operation of a global
information system. The international Animal health code for terrestrial
animals addresses general import risks, monitoring and surveillance standards,
as well as listed animal diseases, covering live animals, semen and embryos and
animal products.
WHO FAO/IPPC and
OIE collaborate in the codex alimentarius on the development of
international guidelines, codes and requirements. There is an established
procedure for routine review and updating of relevant standards, which are then
reflected in updated manuals. OIE reference laboratories (152 collaborating
centres and reference laboratories exist) facilitate the standardization of
diagnostic tests by designating a source of expertise and standard reagents for
Lists A and B diseases. OIE established internationally agreed
procedures/protocols for recognition of freedom from certain animal diseases,
including FMD, Rinderpest, CBPP and FMD.
With regards to
T&T, OIE established in 1983 an ad hoc group on non-tsetse
transmitted trypanosomoses, which organized meetings and provided relevant
publications (economic and trade impact of trypanosomoses; geographic
importance) and recommendations, for example on the need for new trypanocides.
PAAT – Programme Against African Trypanosomosis
The Programme
Against African Trypanosomosis (PAAT is an inter-agency alliance of FAO, IAEA,
AU/IBAR, WHO, research institutions field programmes, NGOs and donors. The overall goal of PAAT is the removal of
the constraints of T&T in humans and livestock and the improvement in the
livelihoods of rural people in affected countries through appropriate
interventions. PAAT was established in
1997 in response to the need for concerted action and to serve as an
independent international advisory body on research, development, control and
investment in the fight against T&T.
The secretariat is
located at FAO headquarters in
May 2002 witnessed
further progress in the inter-agency and PAAT-PATTEC harmonization: Criteria
and guidelines for prioritized joint national and international action and two
initial priority areas, the Ethiopian
Southern Rift Valley and the Mali/Burkina Faso cotton belt were
agreed. In July this year a meeting at
FAO Rome further advanced this process through developing a draft concept note
for the T&T intervention activities in the Ethiopian Southern Rift Valley,
based on which eventually joint international fund raising efforts can be
initiated. A similar meeting is
scheduled to be held in November for the proposed T&T intervention
activities in the Burkina Faso/Mali cotton belt.
With regards to
research activities, the first phase (1998-2003) of the EU funded “Concerted Action”, tagged
“Integrated Control of Pathogenic Trypanosomes and their Vectors” (ICPTV) was
successfully implemented, involving scientists, principally from Africa and
Activities under /
relevant to PAAT are disseminated through PAAT-IS and selected technical papers
were published in the PAAT Technical and Scientific Series.
PAAT continues to
interact with and support AU-PATTEC in its efforts towards the eventual
elimination of tsetse in the continent in the context of food security and
poverty alleviation, taking into account the benefit of selective intervention
based on the vulnerability of tsetse species to attack, the potential for
maximum agricultural benefits and the presence of natural barriers.
The international
community has come together and now speaks in one voice on the way forward top
the fight against T&T, thus sending a clear and powerful message to donors
and governments about channeling investments in T&T.
ILRI - International Livestock Research Institure
ILRI has revised
its research strategy, which is now implemented under five research themes /
programmes:
Targeting research
and development aims at providing
investors, policy makers and R&D implementers with technical and policy
relevant research by means of decision support for disease control using, for
example, socio-economic and GIS aided environmental assessments.
Enabling
innovations aims to enable and foster
innovation and to adapt and deliver new technologies and information to all
relevant stakeholder levels. T &T projects under this theme are implemented
with various partners and include the use of repellents, studies to better use
trypanocides, and institutional analysis of T &T control.
"Market
opportunities aims to buffer the
threats due to globalisation and regulation, so that the poor can better
participate in livestock markets. Priority for T &T projects under this
theme is sustainable T &T control.
Biotechnology aims at applying and adapting relevant technologies to
help poor livestock keepers securing their livestock and assets. T &T
projects with various partners under this theme include functional genomic
studies on trypanotolerance in cattle, tools for in situ conservation of
indigenous genetic resources; work on diagnostic tests and on a vaccine.
People,
livestock and the environment targets
at the positive and negative roles of livestock in sustainable natural resource
management and in producers' and consumers' health. T &T relevant projects
under this theme investigate the epidemiology of T. brucei rhodesiense transmission
and its control in humans and animals, and the provision of environmental
indicators and guidelines to T &T intervention and land-use projects.
In an effort to
integrate research activities to serve rural development objectives, ILRI seeks
-over a five year period and on behalf of the Ethiopian Government - to improve
the supply and demand of agricultural and livestock technologies.
Funded over the
next 5 years by the Government of Canada with over US$ 20 million via NEPAD,
ILRI serves as the first NEPAD centre for excellence in biosciences to support
agriculture.
PATTEC - Pan
African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign
In their summit
decision at Lomé in July 2000 the African Heads of State and Government
requested the elimination of the threat and burden of tsetse-transmitted
diseases from the African continent in the shortest time possible. The summit
decision recognised a) the seriousness and significance of the T &T
problem, and noted increases in disease
incidence and tsetse infestation; b) losses in health and productivity and the
linkage of T &T to rural poverty; and
c) the transboundary nature of the T &T problem, the Zanzibar
success and limited options (other than tsetse eradication).
In December 2000
task force experts from 22 African countries met in Nairobi and prepared a
PATTEC Plan of Action that called for a lasting solution by: a) ensuring
short-term success but aiming at long term goals by systematic creation of an
ever expanding tsetse-free zone at a regional rather than national level; b)
identifying isolated tsetse infestations; c) tackling each tsetse population at
a time; d) employing an areawide integrated approach that uses the most
appropriate "mix" of technologies.
The PATTEC
coordination office addresses a) "drumming-up" action (awareness,
commitment, support and action); b) mediation in inter-state and regional
cooperation; c ) reminding Member States about their obligations to the
campaign; d) resource mobilisation; e) action support (training and capacity
building, development and initiation of PATTEC projects; f) monitoring, review
and report of progress; and g) exploitation of tsetse- free land.
Recent activities
of PATTEC's coordination office included: a) meetings of ECOWAS countries,
southern Africa, and Sudan/Ethiopia; b) agreements with ADB, ESTC and COMESA;
c) presentation of specific requests to NEPAD, DFID, ADB, COMESA; d) training
course on the application of GlS; e) launching of a newsletter and a website;
and f) inclusion of the PATTEC coordination office in the structure of AU.
Relevant field
initiatives took place in
Declared national
plans and strategies are available in
Cooperation
agreements were elaborated and relevant preparatory discussions were held with
six Central African countries, seven Southern African countries, seven East
African countries and several West African countries under the auspices of
ECOWAS.
NEPAD – New Partnership for
In response to the
resurgence of human African Trypanosomosis (HA T) and the role trypanosomoses
play in the context of rural poverty, NEPAD has prioritised the elimination of
trypanosomosis and aims at implementing the Pan-African Tsetse and
Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC).
Components of
NEPAD's programme on T&T in support of PATTEC include social mobilization
and awareness raising, targeted vector control operations and intensification
of HAT surveillance and treatment.
Targets of the
programme are: a) by 2005: at least 80% of the endemic countries will
have a better
knowledge on the HAT situation and have developed a national plan of action for
HAI control; b) by 2006: HAT prevalence will have been reduced by 40% in "
the endemic areas covered by national control programmes; c) by 2007: HAT
prevalence will have been reduced by 50% in the endemic areas covered by the
national control programmes.
With regards to
the agricultural component of the T &T problem, control of tsetse cannot be
addressed in isolation of rural development initiatives. Therefore, NEPAD and
FAO produced the Comprehensive Agriculture Development Programme (CADP) which
provides Governments with guidelines for acceleration of cross-sectorial
measures on sustainable agriculture and rural development, food security and
poverty reduction. Currently FAO is in the process to outline the relevant
guidelines for livestock development, forestry and fisheries.
Countries and
regional communities (RECs) can submit priority programmes / projects,
targeting at the eventual elimination of hunger and poverty, to the NEPAD
secretariat for inclusion in the action plan of NEPAD's flagship projects and
programmes. NEPAD is prepared to assist the countries and RECs to develop
"bankable" project documents and to liaise with international
financial development institutions.
FITCA - Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas
The EU funded
regional programme, Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas, focuses on farmers as
main stakeholders, as participatory approaches should characterise the planning
and implementation process.
FITCA started in
1997 in three main countries, i.e.
At the regional
level, FITCA supports the countries by providing of training, research support,
environmental monitoring and cross-border harmonization. Wherever possible,
FITCA provides support to policies that lead to privatisation in the field of
service delivery to farmers. The availability of efficient and economically
affordable delivery services and favourable market conditions encourage farmers
to restock and/or improve their livestock.
A FITCA mid-term
review was carried out in 2002. Although critical to the achieved results, the
mission recommended the extension of FITCA activities through 2004, in order to
consolidate programme/project results. In response, a consultancy on
consolidation / exit strategies was carried out in 2003, recommending an
extension / phase-two for FITCA.
The experience
gathered under FITCA phase-one suggests that a period of 4 to 5 years may not
be sufficient for sustainable developments in the field of improved animal
production systems.
AU-IBAR encourages
and supports Member Countries to prepare strategies for T &T intervention
and related rural development taking into account the regional policy and the
experience and results achieved under the FITCA phase-one programme.
PACE -
Pan-African Campaign for the Epizootics
PACE addresses
major epizootics such as Rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP),
rift valley fever (RVF), African swine fever (ASF) and foot and mouth disease
(FMD). PACE provides support to veterinary services as part of a holistic
approach that includes livestock policy, relevant legislative development and
information technology.
PACE is based at
the office of AU-IBAR, the technical wing of AU in the field of animal
resources and animal industry. It is a multi-donor funded programme with the
majority of funds being provided by the EC through a five-year funding agreement
signed in 1999.
PACE builds on the
progress achieved under the rinderpest eradication programme. Under a regional
plan for coordination, PARC's overall objective is to eradicate poverty by
increasing the income of livestock owners, improving animal production, trade
and food security. PARC strengthens institutional linkages and employs the
scientifically most advanced technologies to eradicate major animal diseases.
With regards to
RVF, trade embargos on livestock that resulted from outbreaks of the disease in
the
FMD is a disease
of growing importance and greatly affects livestock trade. The
different
serotypes existing both in livestock and wildlife complicate an epidemiological
understanding.
ASF is endemic in
the coastal region of West Africa and is an increasing problem in Central and
PACE achievements
include a) the strengthening of AU-IBAR national veterinary services in disease
control of 30 African countries, and the capacity building through training; b)
development of skills in wildlife disease surveillance; c) commitment to the
OlE, and the application from 9 countries for recognition of freedom from
rinderpest; d) guidelines for privatisation and improvement of veterinary
services; and e) introduction of participatory approaches on animal health to
the communities.
Although PACE
focuses on rinderpest, the available structures and other comparative
advantages of AU-IBAR also can add value in the control of T&T.
ICIPE – International Centre for Insects Physiology
and Ecology
ICIPE was
established three decades ago in
A recent strategic
planning review concluded that ICIPE's major achievements fall in the areas of
technology development, community adoption and adaptive research, expanding
knowledge in basic insect science and capacity and institution building.
ICIPE's tsetse
research programme was initiated by its Founding Director, the late Professor
Thomas Odhiambo, who was honoured during the opening session of the 27th
meeting of the ISCTRC.
In the field of
tsetse and trypanosomosis (T &T), ICIPE's current activities that are
relevant to integrated pest and vector management (IPVM) include work on: a)
tsetse repellent technology; sustainable community-based management of T &T
in Ethiopia; b ) management of sleeping sickness through IPVM in Chad; c)
community based trapping technology in Kenya; d) identification of molecular
targets for novel anti-parasitic drug development; and e) expression of the
surface genes of T. brucei insect larvae.
ICIPE's work on
capacity building and institutional strengthening includes support to PhD and
MSc students (192 so far) and for post-graduate studies. Major emphasis is also
laid on the training of farmers and extension workers.
ICIPE is looking
forward to forming new strategic partnerships in managing the enormous vector
and disease burden
RTTCP / SADC Regional Centre
During the past 15
years the implementation of regional T &T control programmes faced the lack
of complementary action and standardized strategies. It is important that
regional projects ensure a common strategy and implementation plan for
synchronized and complementary T &T intervention at both sides of common
borders. To achieve this, frequent consultations between neighbouring countries
are necessary to agree on common priorities and objectives, to develop an
over-ruling regional policy/strategy and implementation plan, to review
progress achieved or set-backs experienced and to jointly adjust the common
intervention strategy to meet the common objectives.
In regional
projects the national priority areas for T &T intervention and rural
development may differ along two sides of common borders. In such cases there
may be a need for regional bodies or for donors that contribute to regional
projects to ensure that the T &T intervention activities are implemented on
both sides of such borders in a synchronised and harmonised manner.
The
discontinuation of operational activities under the former RTTCP brought along
some reduction in funding for T &T intervention activities. The concerned
countries should consider raising contributions to project activities from the
primary beneficiaries, i.e. farmers and cattle owners, and to outsource project
activities. Reduced funding and activities can also lead to a loss in
well-trained and experienced staff, and a mechanism should be established to
retain such staff by offering relevant training at the middle and senior level.
In any case, national and regional efforts should ensure that areas that were
freed from the T &T problem are not be subjected to reinfestation.
Regional
RTTCP-"successor" projects under the coordination of PATTEC should
include a strong national and regional capacity building process and, if
possible, the regional MSc training course on T &T and related fields
should be re-introduced, and a regional information database should be
established.
CIRAD - Centre de
Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement
CIRAD is a French
organization that serves the countries of the south by fostering research and
methods development on appropriate utilization of natural resources, analysis
of ecosystems and societies, agriculture, forestry and livestock production.
The work also addresses food security, measures against poverty, sustainable
development and environmental protection.
CIRAD results from
the restructuring of different French tropical institutes with some 1800 staff,
two thirds of which are based in
Concerning
T&T, CIRAD-EMVT operates a joint research unit with the institute for
development research (IRD, formerly ORSTOM). Fields of research include
epidemiology, diagnostics, trypanotolerance, tsetse ecology and risk analysis,
immunology and prospects of vaccines.
Researchers at
CIRDES - Centre
International de Recherche-Développement sur L’Elevage en Zone Subhumide
CIRDES, a regional
research and development centre that deals with livestock production in
sub-humid zones, emerged from CRTA, a national animal trypanosomosis research
project financed by
Different research
themes target a) improved diagnostic techniques (PCR and ELISA); b)
epidemiology (including research on mechanical transmission of T. vivax and
sanitary constraints for milk production in peri-urban areas); c) T &T
control, including immunisation experiments with cystein protease, evaluation
of the trypanocidal activity in extracts from four local plants,
epidemiological and serological investigations and awareness generation on
resistance to trypanocidal drugs, breeding and tests on the vectoral capacity of
Glossina palpalis gambiensis from the agro-pastoral zone of
Tienfala-Baguineda in Mali, investigations on the distribution of tsetse flies
in the Mouhoun river basin in Burkina Faso, work on remote sensing (RS) and
geographic information systems (GIS) in support of T &T research and
control, and mass rearing of tsetse flies for eventual use in integrated
campaigns that involve the SIT.; d) Livestock genetics and characterization of
breeds included the preparation of an atlas on the cattle breed distribution in
West Africa, the genetic characterisation of cattle breeds in Bénin, and
research on genetic markers that can be linked to the trait of
trypanotolerance; and e ) socio-economic studies on the socio-economic impact
of T &T intervention operations in Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire.
In 2002 CIRDES
trained some 85 fellows on various relevant techniques.
DNDi - Drugs
for Neglected Diseases
The drugs for
neglected diseases initiative DNDi was registered as a Foundation in July 2003
and is a brainchild of WHO's Drugs for Neglected Diseases Working Group and
MSF, which dedicated the Nobel peace prize money DNDi's work.
Due to the failure
of the market and public policy (drug development appears solely
profit-oriented, public policy fails to redress this imbalance), three major
gaps exist at different stages in the process from R&D on drugs to eventual
availability of drugs to patients. DNDi intends to use an alternative,
not-for-profit, model to develop drugs that is driven by the public sector. A variety
of players will interact to raise awareness of the need for R&D on new
drugs or reformulation of "shelved" components for neglected
diseases, and build public responsibility and leadership, and build capacity in
endemic countries.
DNDi founding
partners include MSF, the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (
DNDi intends to a)
develop a needs-driven drug development portfolio with short to medium-term
(3-6 years; considering existing drugs and compounds) and long-term projects
(10-12 years; research on new lead compounds); b) raise awareness about the
need for R&R for neglected diseases; and c) build capacity in transfer
technology to disease-endemic countries.
DNDi's priority
neglected diseases are sleeping sickness, Leishmaniasis (visceral,
[muco]cutaneous, PKDL) and Chagas’ disease.
DNDi' s funding
support will be a mix of public and private funding from governments, private
foundations general public and the Founding Partners (e.g. MSF allocated
sufficient resources to launch DNDi and support it for five years). DNDi's
initial budget (2003-2004) is US$ 20 million, and over a period of twelve years
US$ 250 million will be needed for a possible outcome of six to seven drugs
registered and a balanced portfolio of eight projects.
Collaboration with
the biomedical research community around the world will help DNDi develop and
make available drugs to people suffering from neglected diseases.
SIT Forum - Sterile
Insect Technique
The sterile insect
technique (SIT) aims to complement and not to replace other, techniques. The integration of SIT with other methods for
T &T intervention involves the mass production of the targeted pest, the
reproductive sterilization of males and their release in large numbers into the
wild target population. The impact on
the released sterile males on the reproductive capacity of the target
population is substantial and -a few generations of continuous sterile male
releases -cause the target population to collapse. The SIT has been used
successfully against several pest insects in North, Central and South America,
in Asia the Middle East and in
The Pan-African
SIT forum was set up in June 2000 under the then OAU and played a major role in
the subsequent establishment of PATTEC. The SIT Forum brings together
specialists from African Member States to share experience and advance the
integration of the SIT to other pest insect intervention methods as part of an
area wide approach to create pest-free zones for sustainable and productive
rural development. Member Countries currently include
EANETT -
The Eastern Africa
Network for Trypanosomosis was started and it is a joint effort by countries in
Research aspects
include a) the active surveillance of humans (and livestock) with
emphasis on the
identification of the most endemic areas and the treatment of HAT (in 2002 >
15,000 people were screened); b) geo-referencing of endemic villages and human
cases; c) establishment of colonies of G. pallidipes, G. swynnertoni and
G. fuscipes for studies on vectorial capacity / transmission; d) genetic
characterization of tsetse flies; d) improvement of techniques for the
isolation of T. b. gambiense from patients; e ) collection of T. b.
gambiense isolates from NW Uganda, Southern Sudan in collaboration with
MSF; and f) characterisation of T. b. gambiense monkey model at KETRI.
Achievements so
far include a) the upgrading of infrastructure (improvement of laboratory
facilities for research and diagnosis) and the improvement of information
(internet access, home page [www.eanett.org], new flyer); b) the
provision of training, including individual training on HAT diagnosis and
tsetse rearing, technical transfers such as PCR techniques for
trypanosome-species identification and to characterise tsetse flies, and the
start of two MSc and two PhD programmes; c) the organisation of annual
conferences to establish a platform for reporting on progress, reviewing
ongoing research and planning further activities.
Since the 26th
ISCTRC, an annual conference with 31 participants was held in Tororo,
In October 2003,
EANETT will hold its 2003 annual conference in
PROTOZOOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY
Moderator :
Prof. Peter Holmes
Rapporteur : Prof. Raffaele C. Mattioli
Six papers were
presented
Report
Paper 201: Dourine
Dourine and the
role of Trypanosoma equiperdum is an under-researched area and no
reliable tests are available. This is partly due to the difficulties in
isolating trypanosomes from cases of dourine in horses. The work presented
attempted to demonstrate the relationship between T. equiperdum, T. evansi and
T. b. brucei. In their study, they examined different stocks of these
trypanosomes using R.A.P.D. and M.E.G.A. molecular techniques. Their results
showed that most of T. equiperdum reported
strains were indistinguishable from T. b. brucei. Their data suggest
that T. equiperdum may be a sub-species of T. b. brucei.
Recommendation
The meeting agreed
that these findings should be confirmed in experiments with larger numbers of samples from newly isolated
cases of dourine from different regions. Attempts should be made to
experimentally infect horses using new isolates.
Papers 202,
203, 301: 1: T. b. gambiense epidemiology
and reservoir host
Various aspects of
epidemiology of T. b. gambiense remain to be elucidated, particularly
the role of animal reservoirs, both domestic and wild animals. It was
confirmed, using PCR, that domestic pigs are potential reservoir host for T.
brucei gambiense.
One of the
problems associated with work on T. brucei gambiense relates to the
isolation of the parasites in experimental animals (e.g. rodents). One of the papers indicated that in
comparison with laboratory mice and rats the thicket rat Grammomys sudaster has
advantages in terms of early onset, higher parasitaemia and greater
sensitivity.
With a view to
identifying reservoir host for T. b. gambiense, a report on vertebrate blood meal analysis of tsetse flies
captured in three localities in
Recommendation
Work should
continue on the epidemiology of T brucei gambiense using newly available
molecular techniques in order to confirm earlier findings and promote new
methods of controlling the disease caused by T. b. gambiense.
Paper 302: Genetic differentiation in natural
populations of tsetse flies
The use of sterile
insect technique (SIT) requires a thorough knowledge of population genetics of
the target tsetse species. The paper explored genetic differences within
populations of Glossina palpalis using micro-satellite DNA polymorphism.
Two micro-satellites loci showed significant differences between West African
populations of G. palpalis. However, more extensive studies are
required to confirm their findings, particularly in relation to control by
application of genetic methods.
Comment
A report on
genetic differences and on heterozygote differences between G. palpalis gambiensis populations
in nearby basins in
Recommendation
The meeting
recommended the initiation of structured genetic sampling of tsetse populations
in order to determine gene-flow and possible confinement of tsetse populations,
especially in
Paper 304: Diet for tsetse mass rearing
The provision of
suitable diet for mass rearing of tsetse is one of the most critical components
of SIT. Parker et al. (304) described
a number of experiments aimed at identifying a suitable diet. The ideal diet
should be a dry, sterile product, shelf-storable at ambient conditions. None of
the diets tested to date fulfils these criteria.
Recommendation
If SIT is to be used on a large scale for tsetse elimination, it will
have to be a suitable mass-produced diet. Today no diet fulfils the ideal
criteria for tsetse mass rearing.
It is recommended
that research to identify a suitable diet be given high priority.
HUMAN AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMOSIS
Moderators :
J.M. Ndungu/C. Miaka Mia
Bilenge
Rapporteur : Simarro/M.
Odiit
Twenty one papers
were presented during the sessions on human African trypanosomosis (sleeping
sickness). Three of these were on diagnosis while four covered issues of
immunopathology. Four of the papers
dealt with aspects of epidemiology of the disease and nine were on drug development. One paper described the possible existence of
another Trypanosoma brucei subspecies.
In the
presentations covering the diagnosis of sleeping sickness, a new promising
test, the Direct Imunofluoresent Antibody Test (DIFAT) was reported. In addition a report was made of a new production
unit for the miniature Anion Exchange Centrifugation Technique (m- AECT) based
in
Concern was
expressed of the spread of T.b. rhodesiense sleeping sickness northwards
in
Studies on
cytokines showed a correlation between Interleukin 10 (IL-l 0) and the clinical
stages of sleeping sickness, and there was evidence of possible genetic
differences in susceptibility related to the genes for IL-l0 and TNF. A
preliminary communication was given about the association between
melarsoprol-related encephalopathic syndromes and HLA type suggesting a
possible relationship. However due to small study sample, more studies should
be undertaken.
Regarding drug
administration results of a multi-country and multicentre study of a 10-day
melarsoprol course regime for the treatment under field conditions of late
stage of T.b. gambiense
sleeping sickness were presented. They showed that the 10-day schedule was as effective as the long (one month)
course one. This is highly appreciated by patients as well as health workers because of its
shorter duration, simplicity and reduced costs. In addition, compliance was
high.
A set of papers
about diamines as a new drug for African trypanosomosis was presented and
included in an inventory of compounds being investigated under the funding of
the consortium the "Medicines for Malaria Ventrure" (MMV) and The
Bill and Melinda Gages Foundation. One pro-drug is currently in phase II
clinical trials for stage I T.b.
gambiense. Other compounds have been
shown to be potentially capable of curing T.b.
rhodesiense and crossing the blood-brain barrier. Preliminary results from an open-label,
non-controlled Phase II study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of DB 289 in
patients with first stage T.b. gambiense
sleeping sickness were presented. The
tolerance was excellent; the adverse events recorded were headache,
intermittent fever and pruritus.
Two patients were
withdrawn due to high blood pressure and persistent high fever.
Results
Efficacy of DB 289
against early and late stages of T.b.
rhodesiense infections in mice were presented. Sensitivity of T. b. rhodesiense isolated from CSF or from blood of vervet monkeys
that relapsed after treatment of second stage with DB 289. These were compared with original isolates.
The results showed
no differences between original isolate and the parasites taken from CSF.
However the parasites isolated from blood showed a significant difference.
Results on treatment-related morbidity and mortality obtained in KajoKeji (
Recommendations
1. The
meeting recommended that a 10-day course of melarsoprol be adopted as a
treatment for the late stage T.b.
gambiense sleeping sickness. It is further recommended that similar studies
be extended to T.b. rhodesiense
patients.
2. WHO/TDR be
requested to hasten the process of
registration of Nifurtimox for the treatment of sleeping sickness.
3. Field
trials on the validity and cost-effectiveness of the DIFAT test should be
carried out.
4. Publicity
of the m-AECT facility in
5. Continuation
of the studies on cytokine secretion and genetics that are showing promising
results should be supported.
6. Further
characterization of the T. brucei that had not been described previously
should be carried out and its epidemiological significance determined.
7. When
sleeping sickness occurs in urban centres control methods must include vector
control and improvement of health centres to cater for the infected.
8. Studies on
combinations of existing drugs and new ones should be encouraged.
9. In low
endemic areas of T. b rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense, a control programme based on passive surveillance
utilizing primary health services can be most cost-effective but training of
health workers on sleeping sickness and building laboratory capacities should
be undertaken.
10. Researchers
must be encouraged to carry out operational research involving screening
treatment and follow-ups. This must be incorporated in national control
programs.
11. Ministers
of Health in endemic countries should be sensitized on the public health
importance of
sleeping sickness so as to give it priority.
ANIMAL TRYPANOSOMOSIS AND DIAGNOSIS
Moderators :
Joyce Daffa/Issa SIDIBE
Rapporteur :
Charles Mahama
The importance of T.
congolense as a relatively pathogenic trypanosome in the epidemiology of
animal trypanosomosis was underscored by two presentations. The first presentation focused on methods and
procedures aimed at differentiating isometamidium resistant and non-resistant T
congolense isolates by DNA amplification of suspected gene fragments that
may serve as markers for distinguishing markers for drug resistance. The methodology suggested needs to be further
developed to allow a better distinction between drug resistant and
non-resistant strains. The second
presentation sought to compare 3 phylogenetically distinct T. congolense types;
(the Kilifi, Savanna and
A paper was
presented on the results of an experiment that was carried out to confirm the
non-cyclical transmission of T. vivax by two species of African
tabanids. Tabanids were able to transmit
T. vivax from experimentally infected
Zebu cattle to non-infected cattle in a fly proof cattle shed. The experiment raises the question of the possibility
of eradicating T. vivax infection
after tsetse eradication.
Reports on the use
of trypanocidal drugs show that one of the major problems veterinarians face is
the reconstitution of drugs. Trials
conducted to compare the curative activity of 2 formulations of diaminazene
aceturate (granular and sterile ready-to-use formulations) showed that the two
were equally effective in the treatment of animal trypanosomosis, with the
latter having a more positive effect on body weight than the former.
The effect of
isometamidium on milk off-take in cattle was presented. Generally there was a
depression of milk production by isometamidium, but by varying dosages of the
drug, it was demonstrated that drug dosage of 1mg/Kg body weight, had a
significantly greater depression on milk production than a dosage of O.5mg/Kg.
The results of a
comprehensive survey of parasitic diseases namely, trypanosomosis, tick-borne
diseases and helminthiasis conducted in the Busia District of Kenya were
presented. The prevalence of trypanosomosis was very variable between village,
ranging from 1.3% to 5% in both cattle and small ruminants. Heavy worm burdens
were observed in calves. There was a remarkably high prevalence of T. brucei
infection observed in dogs, with dogs showing signs of blindness. The
demonstration of other parasitic diseases prevailing in the area, strongly
suggests that epidemiological surveys be conducted in a more comprehensive
manner so as to formulate integrated disease control strategies
The importance of
tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis in transhumance camels was reported. Standard parasitological detection methods
and the PCR showed that camels were infected with T. vivax, T. congolense (savanna
type) and T. brucei. The most
prevalent species found was T. brucei.
These findings underscore the importance of tsetse transmitted
trypanosomosis in camels that are reared in close proximity to tsetse belts or
camels that trek across tsetse belts.
A paper based on
the results of investigations into drug resistance in
Not much work has
been done on the relationship between nutrition and infection. The blood
chemistry of N'dama cows artificially infected with T. congolense was
monitored. The levels of metabolites in the two groups showed that wastage
arising from infection could be translated to energy in trypanotolerant cattle
living in tsetse infested areas.
Recommendations:
1.
Research on chemo-resistance
Aware
of the importance of chemoresistance in the epidemiology of trypanosomosis, the
meeting recommended the continuation of research aimed at developing rapid and
simple protocols and the identification of molecular markers of resistance to
trypanocides.
2.
Development of new drug and quality control
Noting
with concern the difficulties encountered by veterinarians and other field
workers in the use of drugs, among which is the standardization of drug
formulations, the meeting recommended the building of appropriate partnerships
between end users and drug manufacturers for the development of drug
formulations that are effective and easy to use by farmers.
It
is also recommended that mechanisms should be put in place in the different
countries that will enable the various veterinary services to control the
importation, distribution and use of veterinary drugs including trypanocides
which will ensure that only approved drugs are on the market.
3.
Minimizing the development of drug resistance
Aware
of the need to prevent the development of drug resistance in trypanosomes it was recommended that the use of prophylactic drugs
especially isometamidium should be done through organized campaigns to ensure
timely and adequate coverage according to the recommendation made by PAAT and
ICPTV during the meeting held in Nairobi, June, 2000. In the area with a high
prevalence of drug resistance, integrated control measures should be instituted
to reduce tsetse challenge.
4.
Pathogenicity of T. evansi
a) Noting that studies elsewhere (
b) Aware that camels some of which are infected with T.
evansi are being introduced in non-traditional areas where they mix with
cattle, sheep, goats etc,
c) Noting that T. evansi is the most widely
distributed trypanosome species and is mechanically transmitted; this could
jeopardize post tsetse eradication success in
It
was recommended that comprehensive studies be carried out on the
pathogenicity/chemotherapy of T. evansi infection in the various
domestic animal species.
5.
Integrated management of animal diseases
Aware
of the occurrence of other parasitic diseases in tsetse control led areas and
the need for integrated management of diseases, the meeting recommends that
epidemiological surveys in tsetse-infested areas be extended to cover other
parasitic diseases.
6.
Camels
Aware
that camels are being introduced into tsetse infested areas, it is hereby
recommended that:
Studies
be carried out to address the effect of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in
this animal species
VECTOR CONTROL
Moderator : Burkhard Bauer
Rapporteur : W. Shereni
Five papers were
presented on vector control. Two of the papers were on tsetse surveys, one was
on the interaction between the various groups of stakeholders in tsetse control
while the final two papers were on research on tsetse control technologies. The
few numbers of papers on research was noted with concern.
The trapping
performance of a new trap (the tetra trap) developed at CIRDES was compared
with the NZi trap. The trap captured more tabanids than the NZi trap whereas
there was no significant difference in the catches of stomoxys. The study did
not examine the effectiveness of the tetra trap for sampling populations of
tsetse flies. Results however showed that the tetra trap is an effective tool
for the capture of mechanical vectors.
The distribution
of Glossina pallidipes was demonstrated to extend to the border area of
Tsetse control was
undertaken on
A paper was
presented on a study undertaken to identify the institutions and
policies affecting the delivery of trypanosomosis control technologies in
Tsetse and
trypnosomosis surveys were carried out on Mafia island to gather sufficient
baseline data prior to implementation of control measures. The island is
infested by a single species of tsetse flies, G. brevipalpis. It was noted that the island would be
ideal for SIT as it is located some 40km from the mainland. There was however,
debate on whether it was appropriate to implement SIT programme on the island
in view of the low incidence of trypanosomosis.
Recommendations
1. Attempts
should be made to standardize sampling regimes as well as species-specific
traps, If practical constraints prevent this, then factors such as trap
location, trapping period and site characteristics should be recorded in a
standardized way.
2. In view of
the fact that tsetse control traps and targets currently in use in various
tsetse infested countries are made of fabrics of a wider range of blue and
black colour most of which are not UV -resistant, it is recommended that AU/IBAR
advises on specifications of the fabric appropriate for the standard
blue/black targets and traps in terms of texture and colour for adoption in all
the tsetse control projects. It is
however, recognized that in considering standardization of trapping and target
designs, there is need to take into account regional peculiarities, The
conference, recognizing the problems and lack of standardized procedures for
characterizing the materials used for fabrication of traps and targets,
recommended that a manual be produced and distributed that provides standard
methodologies for characterizing:
·
The colour of the
material both in the visible and near ultraviolet spectrum
·
The behavior of
the material in relation to the absorption and retention of different
insecticide and other chemical active ingredients and formulations, including
sequestering, bio-availability and persistence, and providing a review of
available data relating to both of these.
3. Recognizing
similarities in responsiveness to baits among mechanical vectors and tsetse
flies and the comparative effectiveness between the NZi and tetra trap, it is
recommended that support be provided to enable future research on trapping
methods for both mechanical vectors and tsetse flies, developing from the work
that has been initiated at CIRDES.
4. Recognizing the potential effectiveness of using a chitin synthesis inhibitor (Triflumuron) as a means of tsetse control it was noted that there was an added advantage of spreading within a tsetse population a reproductive anomaly, it was therefore recommended to continue investigations on the technology and where possible to incorporate the technique into existing control strateg