NIGERIA COUNTRY REPORT ON TSETSE INFESTATION AND  TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN NIGERIA AN OVERVIEW

RAPPORT NATIONAL DU NIGERIA SUR LA TRYPANOSOMOSE ET L’INFESTATION PAR LES TSETSE : UN APERÇU

Zaria, L.T

Director-General,
Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis and Onchocerciasis Research
P.M.B 2077 Kaduna – Nigeria
e-mail: lamido2004@yahoo.com

            La trypanosomose est une maladie  très répandue, qui constitue un obstacle majeur à la production animale et à l’agriculture mixte, et une menace à la santé de l’homme en Afrique tropicale. La maladie est transmise cycliquement par la mouche tsétsé, qui infeste environ 80% du territoire nigerian, allant de 4o à 12o de latitude Nord, couvrant toutes les zones agro-écologiques du pays. Quatre de ces espèces (Glossina palpalis palpalis, G. tachinoides, G.m. morsitans et G. longipalpis) ont une grande importance économique et ont fait l’objet de diverses campagnes de lutte et d’éradication. Au Nigeria, la maladie a de graves conséquences sur le bétail, l’homme et les systèmes de production agricole. Les recherches menées par le NITR sur la trypanosomose humaine africaine (THA) dans l’Etat du Delta, montrent que sur les 840 personnes examinées, plus de 20% étaient positives, dont environ 5% à un stade avancé de la maladie. La maladie chez le bétail est grave et très répandue. Les enquêtes menées sur les ruminants entre 1989 et 1991 ont révélé des taux globaux de prévalence de 4,3% chez les bovins ; 1,6% chez les moutons et 1% chez les chèvres. De même, entre 1993 et 1996, les taux de prévalence de la maladie chez les bovins, les moutons et les chèvres étaient de 10% ; 8,6% et 8,1% respectivement sur toutes les zones agro-écologiques du pays. Les pertes dues à la maladie sont évaluées à environ 5,3 milliards de naira (N) chaque année, hormis plus de 500 millions N que l’on dépense tous les ans pour l’importation de trypanocides

            Pour conclure, le Nigeria démarrera sous peu une autre campagne d’éradication  de la mouche tsétsé et de la trypanosomose transmise par les tsétsé par le biais du Programme de Campagne panafricaine d’éradication de la mouche tsétsé et de la trypanosomose (PATTEC).

Summary

            Trypanosomiasis is a disease that is widespread and a major constraint to liverstock production, mixed farming and human health in tropical Africa. The disease is transmitted cyclically by the tse-tse fly which infests approximately 80% of the Nigerian landmass from latitude 4º to 12ºN covering all the agro-ecological zones of the country. Four of these species (Glossina p. palpalis, G. tachinoides, G.m. marsitans and G. longipalpis) are of great economic importance and have been subject to various control and eradication campaigns. The disease in Nigeria has severe impact on livestock, human and other agricultural production systems. Research (NITR) of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) in Delta State shows that of 840 persons examined, more that 20% were found positive, with almost 5.0% in advanced stage of disease. The disease in livestock is severe and widespread.  Survey reports in ruminants between 1989 and 1991 showed overall prevalence rates of 4.3% in cattle, 1.6% in sheep and 1.0% in goats. Similarly between 1993 and 1996, prevalence rates of the disease in cattle, sheep and goats were 10.0%, 8.6% and 8.1% respectively across the agro-ecological zones of the country. Losses due to the disease is estimated at almost 5.3 billion naira (N) annually, apart from more than 500 N millions spent annually in the important of trypanocides.

            In conclusion, Nigeria will soon start another eradication campaign against the tse-tse flies and the disease transmitted by these flies through the Pan-African Tse-tse and Trypanosomiasis Campaign (PATTEC).

1.0       Background

            Trypanosomiasis is a disease that is widespread and a major constraint to livestock production, mixed farming and human health in tropical Africa. The disease is transmitted cyclically by the tsetse fly, which infests approximately one-third of the African continent, or roughly 10 million km2 (FAO-WHO-OIE, 1982). In the 36 tsetse-infested countries in Africa, close to 50 million cattle and tens of millions of small ruminants are at risk from trypanosomosis. Direct losses in meat production and milk yield and the costs of programs which attempt to control trypanosomosis are estimated to amount to between US$0.6 and 1.2 billion each year (FAO, 1994). If the cost of the lost potential in livestock and crop production is included, trypanosomosis is estimated to cost the sub- Saharan Africa US$ 4 billion or more each year, one fourth of the total livestock produce in the area (FAO, 1994).

            Tsetse also transmits trypanosomes to humans causing sleeping sickness. The World Health Organisation (WHO) reports that more than 60 million people live at risk of becoming infected with sleeping sickness.  Out of the estimated 500,000             already infected, 25,000 die every year (WHO, 1995).

            The disease in Nigeria has severe impact on livestock, humans and other agricultural production systems. Recent survey by the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR) of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) in Delta state, shows that of the 840 persons examined, more than 20.0% were found positive, with about 5.0% in advanced stage of the disease. The disease in livestock is severe and widespread. Survey reports in ruminants between 1989 and 1991 showed overall prevalence rates of 4.3% in cattle, 1.6% in sheep and 1.0% in goats (EEC-Trypanosomiasis control Project, 1989-1992). Similarly, between 1993 and 1996, prevalence rates of the disease in cattle, sheep and goats were 10.0%, 8.6% and 8.1%, respectively across the agro-ecological zones of the country (Onyiah, 1997). Losses due to the disease is estimated at N5.3 billion annually, apart from more than N500 million spent annually in the importation of trypanocides 

2.0       The Problem In Nigeria

2.1       The Tsetse Vector

            Eleven of the twenty-three known species of tsetse flies are found in Nigeria, infesting approximately 80% of the Nigeria landmass of 0.93km2, from approximately latitudes 4o – 12oN, covering all the agro-ecological zones of the country (Baldry, 1967) (Fig. 1). Four of these (Glossina p. palpalis, G. tachinoides, G. m. submorsitans and G. longipalpis) are of great economic importance and have been subjected to various control/eradication campaigns. Although the tsetse distribution map has not been updated for two decades, the current map of tsetse distribution in Nigerian only indicates the general regions where each specie occur. The distribution of G. palpalis and G. tachinoides is indicated by the northern and southern limits of their range, while G. m. submorsitans is represented by belts of different sizes scattered across the country.  Distribution of G. longipalpis is shown by the demarcation of the area where specimens had been collected. The remaining species, mostly fusca group species are distributed in the southern parts of the country. The harsh climatic conditions along the northern boundary with Niger Republic create tsetse-free zones between the two countries, although G. tachinoides infests some riverine areas of Niger Republic.   When classified taxonomically, the Nigerian tsetse falls within the Fusca, Palpalis and Morsitans groups.

2.1.1    The Fusca group:

            This is represented by 5 species, namely G. f. congolensis, G. tabaniformis, G. n. nigrofusca, G. medicorum and G. haningtoni.  Studies on this group have been very limited.  All members are essentially found in the rain forest belts, except that G. medicorum and G. fusca which incur into the relict forests within the derived and guinea savanna.

2.1.2    The Palpalis group

            This is represented by 4 species. G. palpalis  and G. tachinoides are the most widely distributed species in this group and among species of the three groups. They are distributed along rivers/stream courses, orchards and have been found to also exhibit peridomestic behaviour, living in closed association with humans and domestic livestock (Baldry, et al, 1967; Madubunyi, et al, 1988; Dede, et al, 1999).

2.1.3    The Morsitans group

            This is represented by 2 species, G.m. submorsitans and G. longipalpis.  Their distribution had always been limited to the Guinea and Sudan Savanna, scattered within belts of unequal sizes. Field observations on the tsetse situation suggests the decline of the Morsitans group species from their defined belts/habitats in the north-east and central agro-ecological zones (Onyiah, 1977; Omoogun, et al 1991; NITR/NARP, 1996).

2.2       Recorded changes in the distribution of tsetse

2.2.1    The Highlands

            Studies by the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis (NITR) have shown that the hitherto tsetse free areas have been infested by the flies (NITR/NARP, 1986; Dede, et al, 2005). These include the Jos, Mambilla and Obudu plateaux where G. p. palpalis was found actively breeding in several locations.

Figure 1.  Approximate Distribution Of Glossina Species, Areas Reclaimed and the

            Proposed Project Area

2.2.2     Areas previously reclaimed

            In the past, the country had achieved some level of eradication of the flies over more than 400,000 km2 of its territory (Bature, 1985), but owing to the inability to consolidate the areas cleared against reinvasion, most of these areas have been re-infested, even though the exact magnitude is unknown. It is difficult to be categorical on the prevailing tsetse situation in most of the areas previously reclaimed because post reclamation surveillance have not been extensively undertaken in these localities.  The limited information available shows that the northeastern region, comprising many areas in Adamawa, Borno and Taraba States reclaimed in the past have been reinfested with G. tachinoides. (Jawonisi, 1984; Bature, 1985)

2.2.3     The Savanna

            Field observations also suggest the decline of G. m. submorsitans and G. longipalpis from most of their defined habitats in the Guinea and Derived Savanna. These changes occurred in the absence of any purposeful tsetse control effort. However, increased human activities i.e. farming, rural expansion, road construction and poaching may have adversely affected them.

2.2.4 The Forest Zone

            It has been observed that the Fulani pastoralists have extended their grazing range into the rain forest where 7 species of tsetse are known to occur.  Most of them are now settling permanently in this zone in the absence of any tsetse control attempt, without any reported disease outbreak. It is not in doubt that the fly population has significantly reduced as a result of habitat modification by man, coupled with their low vectorial competence. The distribution of tsetse in these areas and an assessment of their vectorial capacity require further investigation to prevent future resurgence of the disease.

2.3       Other biting flies

            Trypanosomiasis can also be mechanically transmitted by tsetse and other biting flies through the transfer of blood from an infected animal to a susceptible one.  The magnitude of the role played by other haematophagous insects in the transmission of pathogenic trypanosomes in Nigeria has not been fully investigated.  Several workers have reported the presence of members of the following families; Tabanidae, Anthomyidae Hippoboscidae and Muscidae.  These flies are most abundant during the wet season and have been implicated in the mechanical transmission of animal trypanosomiasis and other livestock diseases elsewhere. This perhaps is responsible for the disease presence in areas far remote from tsetse belt (Nawathe, et al, 1980).

2.4       The disease in man

            Human African Trypanosomiasis is still of serious public health concern. Records of NITR’s Epidemiological outstations in the Northern states shows that   incidence of the disease declined from 5,094 in 1960 to about 1000 cases in 1968.  By 1974, cases of the disease had further declined to 132. However, an active sleeping sickness focus was identified in the 1980’s in Abraka, Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State (Edeghere, et al, 1986). Between 1989-1996, 359 out of 3,583 people screened were seropositive . There are increasing number of voluntary cases reporting for treatment at the Eku Baptist Hospital, Delta State (El-Hassan, et al, 1999). In 2000, 116 patients were treated at the hospital. In 2003 and 2004, 5 new seropositive cases were detected from 300 voluntary patients (NITR, 2001).  Between 2004 and 2005, 67 patients have undergone treatment at the hospital with drugs received from the World Health Organization (WHO).

2.5       The disease in livestock

            Over 14 million cattle are at risk of trypanosomiasis in all the agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The most important species of trypanosomes affecting livestock are Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense, T. b. brucei and T. simiae

            Animal trypanosomiasis is considered the second most important of livestock diseases and remains a major obstacle to livestock production in Nigeria. Surveys conducted between 1989 and 1991 of the Northern states where two-thirds of the nation’s livestock resources are concentrated showed prevalence rates of 4.3% in cattle, 1.6% in sheep and 1.0% in goats (EEC-Trypanosomiasis control Project, 1989-1991). Higher prevalence rates of 10.0%, 8.6% and 8.1% was obtained in same group of animals in a wider survey of all the agro-ecological zones between 1993 and 1996 (NITR/NARP, 1996).

2.6    Economic importance.

            Economic losses due to tsetse and trypanosomiasis cannot be adequately quantified, but are enormous.  It has been estimated that US$70 million is lost annually in cattle alone in six northern states. This is apart from the US$1.7 million spent annually in the importation of trypanocides.  The government was said to be loosing up to $23.8m annually considering the time and drugs spent in control activities, loss of weight, and death (Esuoroso, 1973). Losses in livestock in Nigeria due to the disease are estimated at $192 million annually. Recent estimates by NITR between 1983 and 1996 in six states showed losses in cattle alone amounting to N837.2m annually (NITR/NARP, 1996). Tsetse infested areas of Nigeria could potentially support additional 1.2m herds of cattle and twice as much the number of sheep, goats and pigs. The cost of vector control has also been enormous. The cost of spraying has been put at 357/km2 for ground application and 400/km for helicopter application. The cost of reclaiming 400,000km2 of the Sudan and northern guinea savannah zones between 1955 and 1983 was put at about 1.6 billion (Bature, 1985).

3.0       Control Efforts To Date For Tsetse And Trypanosomiasis In Nigeria

            In view of the foregoing economic implications, control has become inevitable. Nigeria has an extensive history of active intervention in the control of trypanosomiasis through the combined use of surveillance, chemotherapy, chemo-prophylactic procedures and vector control.

3.1       The vector

            In the early days of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in Nigeria, the primary objective was to break the host-vector contact. Therefore control efforts over the years were directed against both the parasites and the vector. Strategies directed against the vector in Nigeria are:

 3.1.1    Various Kinds of Vegetation Clearing

            Results from ecological studies highlighted the significance of vegetation to the survival of tsetse (Nash, 1948). Partial clearing of the vegetation that serves as the natural habitats of tsetse had significant effect on G. tachinoides at Gadau in Kano State but not on G. m. submorsitans (Nash, 1948). Between 1938-1958, habitat manipulation was used at the Anchau settlement scheme and the Katsina-Kano –Zaria projects (Steiner, 1964). Clearing activities in recent years have tended to be minimal due to the cost of clearing and maintenance resulting from rapid regeneration (Maclenan, 1981). Of immense significance are the negative environmental impact of the control measure such as erosion, depletion of wildlife, bush fires, ecological imbalance etc. It may still be useful in some sleeping sickness situations as a means of protection on limited sectors of the perimeter of eradication projects (usually in combination with insecticides) and on the more intensive livestock projects.

3.1.2     The use of traps and insecticides impregnated screens

            The most reliable approach to combating the threat of trypanosomiasis is through effective control/eradication of the vector (tsetse fly). This is in view of the problems enumerated above, which are associated with the residual use of insecticides as in tsetse control campaigns and the enormous financial involvement in the use of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). Therefore much research in recent years has been directed towards development of cheaper and environmentally friendly methods of tsetse control that avoids indiscriminate use of insecticides, particularly in view of smaller control operations e.g. on ranches, settlement schemes etc. However, outbreaks of the disease occurring within endemic areas still require direct and drastic intervention to break the cycle of transmission and enable medical or veterinary services to bring the disese under control. Under such emergency situation, there are no practical alternatives than to the use of insecticides for rapid extermination of tsetse flies. To improve the impasse in tsetse control there is need to develop tools, which could be used, by non-specialized personnel or that can be handled at the community level. Of various approaches to tsetse control that have been the subject of recent research, the most immediately        promising has been the development of traps and targets.

            The development of the tsetse trap provided the basis for tsetse control by the use of traps (Challier & Laveissiere, 1973).  It has received wide acclaim all over Africa because of its effectiveness to control tsetse and the fact that it is environmentally friendly. With time various types of cheap and simple tsetse traps were subsequently designed and developed after the model of Challier and Laveisiere in different parts of Africa for control of different tsetse species. NITR, in a similar effort developed the Nitse trap for use in Nigeria (Omoogun, 1994).

            The present effort at control through trapping is a welcome development since traps and targets can be handled by the rural communities themselves. In Nigeria the combination of biconical trap and targets screens have proved highly effective for the control of the palpalis group species (Takken, et al, 1986; Oladunmade, et al, 1990). Most recently, the Nitse trap, has demonstrated additional effectiveness against the morsitans group species (Omoogun, et al, 1994).

            Impregnated screens are pieces of blue cloth (70 x 110cm) that are soaked in persistent insecticides e.g. in deltamethrin at 2300mg/screen a.i.  They have proved very effective when sited every 100m, when hung from tree branches along river courses or placed on metal frames for use in savanna areas. Alternatively, the screens can be interspersed with impregnated traps. Two to three weeks of continuous trapping and screening has been shown to cause population reduction of 96%, while 2 months of continuous trapping and screening caused 99% population reduction (Laveissiere & couret, 1981; Takken, et al, 1986). To further improve trap efficiency, various types of baits ( carbon dioxide, acetone, fermented cow urine etc) have been used in attracting tsetse to targets and thus increase trap catches (Jordan & Green, 1984)

            The use of insecticide impregnated traps and screens are economical compared with insecticide spray in the following respects; (1) material cost-price of trap is very low, which can further be reduced by simplification and mass production (2) insecticides cost:- the impregnation of traps requires less insecticides (3) man-power cost:- it requires less and unskilled man-power (4) pollution:- the             non target fauna are not contaminated. The technology can be easily transferred   to the farmers.

3.1.3     Destruction of Game

            Game destruction as a method of tsetse control was advocated after the   observation in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) that tsetse flies which had    occupied large parts of the country disappeared following the great rinderpest epidemic of about 1896 (Jack, 1914).  Not much has been done in Nigeria as to game destruction for the control of tsetse. The only record was of 1929 when a small-scale game exclusion experiment was conducted by Dr. Walter Johnson’s team in the north of the country (Ford, 1970).  Game destruction is not likely to be effective for riverine species of tsetse (G. palpalis, G. tachinoides) which feed on other hosts besides wild game, e.g. man, domestic animals, crocodiles and reptiles (Buxton, 1955; Maclenan, 1981). In West Africa, Savannah tsetse populations thrive on very low game densities (Maclenan, 1981), so, game destruction is unlikely to succeed as a control measure against tsetse in Nigeria, due to the afore mentioned reasons, coupled with its effects on biodiversity.

 3.1.4    Use of insecticides

            Various methods used for insecticide control of tsetse in Nigeria include:

1. Application of insecticides from the ground by knapsack sprayers, which leaves residual deposits.
2. Application of insecticides from the air with helicopter and fixed wing aircraft (for non residual deposits.
3. Use of insecticide impregnated screens and targets.
4. Use of pour-on insecticides on animal targets.

            The use of insecticides to control tsetse was started in 1955 by the Veterinary Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Unit of Northern Nigeria (Davies, 1964). Activities were first started at the Kamadugu Gana river system and later extended to the Kiyawa-Jama’are-Katagum system (Davies, 1964; Maclenan & Kirby, 1958; Davies & Blasdale, 1960). The combined areas covered by the systems lie within Kano, Bornu and Bauchi State. Persistent insecticide was applied from the ground on the tsetse resting sites by means of pneumatic knapsack pressure sprayers (Davies, 1964; Maclenan, 1968). With time, following the acquisition of knowledge of the ecology of tsetse, spraying was progressively undertaken in a more discriminative and selective manner (Maclenan & Cook, 1972; Scholz, et al, 1976).  The insecticide of choice was DDT wettable powders suspended in water.  The activity extended through the Sudan to the Northern Guinea savanna zones (Putt, et al, 1980; Spielberger, et al, 1977). 

            The campaign began in the far north, along the river systems draining into Lake Chad, but before completion of the operation, detailed studies were undertaken of     the feasibility of eradicating tsetse from two further extensive areas, in northeast and north-central Nigeria.  By the end of the 1975-76 spraying season, some      194,500 km2 had been reclaimed, mainly by the ap0plication of residual insecticide from the ground, but including some 9,800 km2 cleared by the application of residual insecticide from helicopters (Jordan, 1986).

            Spraying activities to control tsetse that was started by the Veterinary Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Unit of Northern Nigeria was taken over by the Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Division (TTD) of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources.  From 1979, it became the responsibility of the Federal Department of pest Control Services (FDPCS) based in Kaduna.  Spraying and respraying activities up to 1981 have reclaimed large areas of land of about 210,000 km2 in the Sudan and Northern Guinea Savanna zones from tsetse. Tsetse species affected by spraying were mainly G. m. submorsitans, G. palpalis and G. tachinoides.  The combined use of insecticide by different methods has produced the most beneficial results, responsible for reclaiming 238,500 km2 of infested land from tsetse (Jawonisi, 1984; Bature, 1985) (Fig. 1).

3.1.5     Control by sterile male release technique

            Biological control involves the deliberate use of predators and genetic means against tsetse.  The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was used in the Lafia Agricultural Project Area to eliminate G. p. palpalis from 1500 km2 in the subhumid zone of central Nigeria.  The concept of the method is to produce large numbers of males in the laboratory, sterilize them, without any change in    behaviour so that they can compete effectively with their wild counterparts.

            Eradication was achieved in 1986 (Oladunmade, et al, 1990).  However due to non-isolation of the area and lack of proper post reclamation land development and utilization programme, reinvasion of G. palpalis had occurred over the years.  Also with the continuous presence in the area of G. tachnoides which was not targeted by the SIT, the area has continued to remain a high trypanosomiasis risk.

            Most of the regions of the country earlier reclaimed from tsetse have now been re-invaded. The reason being that since the early 1980’s, control efforts have been discontinued throughout the country.  NITR, that has the mandate for trypanosomiasis research and control in this country has been grossly under funded such that systematic surveillance of the disease has not been undertaken for some time.  The closure of 22 epidemiological outstations of the Institute spread across the country in 1985 further affected our efforts to handle the human disease.

3.2       The parasite

3.2.1     Chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis

             In animals, the use of curative and prophylactic drugs are the most widely accepted means of controlling the disease, thereby reducing losses in animals (Leeflang & Ilemobade, 1971; NITR, 1988). Berenil and Samorin are the common trypanocides used for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes. The situation as regards human sleeping sickness is more intractable.  Drugs are in short supply to treat identified cases.     The three traditional drugs Pentamidine, Sumarin and Melarsoprol) for treatment of the disease have limited effectiveness and severe side effects. The recently registered drug difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) is not yet available in the Nigerian market.

3.2.2     Immunisation.

Concerted efforts at developing an effective vaccine against trypanosomiasis have remained elusive largely because of the extreme antigenic variability exhibited by the parasites.

3.2.3     Use of Trypanotolerant Animals

            It has long been recognized that certain breeds of African cattle (Muturu, N’Dama) are considerably more resistant to African trypanosomiasis than others. It has been estimated that there are about 300,000 heads of trypanotolerant cattle in Nigeria, distributed largely within the derived savanna and the forest regions. A reliable recent figure is not available to ascertain whether these populations had increase over the years. In Nigeria, comparison of N’Dama, Muturu and zebu cattle kept under trypanosomiasis risks, found N’Dama to exhibit better potentials for practical application than Muturu, thus suggesting that the breed could be used more extensively in tsetse infested areas of the country (Roberts & Gray, 1973). The ability of these breeds to withstand infection in the presence of heavy tsetse challenge is further being investigated.

4.0       Some Identified Constraints That Hampered Progress

1. Tsetse fly, especially members of the Palpalis group are expanding their        distribution and co-existing peridomestically in towns and villages, thereby increasing the risk of disease acquisition and transmission.
2. Occurrence of the disease outside tsetse infested belts where it may be transmitted  non-cyclically by other biting insects.
3. Discovery of cattle serving as potential reservoir hosts of T. b. gambiense in endemic areas of Gboko and parts of Kaduna State.
4. Persistence of flies, especially G. p. palpalis in areas of intense land use in many parts of central Nigeria because seasonal climatic conditions are less extreme.
5. It was much easier to monitor sleeping sickness in the past when NITR had 9 epidemiological outstations each with its own treatment center spread across the   northern part of the country.  These were closed down in 1975, making effective monitoring of the disease difficult.
6. Re-infestation of areas reclaimed by tsetse due to breakdown in eradication and surveillance activities.
7. Lack of proper coordination of vector and disease control measures.
8. Poor appreciation of the social impact of the disease.
9. Very weak collaboration between Institutions working on the problem.

5.0       The New Strategy For The Eradication Of Tsetse And Trypanosomiasis In Nigeria

            There is inadequate policy guideline on tsetse and trypanosomiasis control. Considering the magnitude of the problem and the socio-economic impact on the     nation, NITR, the only national Institute with the mandate for research into tsetse and trypanosomiasis and their control, has since 1993 proposed a special case intervention programme to the Federal Government.  It was only recently, with the inauguration of the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) that the proposed strategy for an eradication programme for tsetse and trypanosomiasis, was approved.