Leptospirosis

Selected content from the Animal Health and Production Compendium (© CAB International 2013). Distributed under license by African Union – Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources.

Whilst this information is provided by experts, we advise that users seek veterinary advice where appropriate and check OIE manuals for recent changes to regulations, diagnostic tests, vaccines and treatments.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

TOP

Identity    Pathogen/s    Overview    Distribution    Distribution Map for Africa    Distribution Table for Africa    Hosts/Species Affected    Host Animals    Systems Affected    Epidemiology    Zoonoses and Food Safety    Disease Course    Disease Treatment    Prevention and Control    References    Links to Websites    OIE Reference Experts and Laboratories

 Identity

Preferred Scientific Name
leptospirosis
International Common Names
English
leptospirosis in cattle, leptospirosis in sheep and goats, leptospirosis in swine, redwater of calves

 Pathogen/s

Leptospira borgpetersenii
Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo
Leptospira hardjo
Leptospira interrogans
Leptospira kirschneri
Leptospira pomona

Overview

Leptospires are motile bacteria with hook-shaped ends, and internal flagella. They can be found in aquatic environments and are sensitive to desiccation. They are Gram-negative, do not stain well, but can be visualized using dark-field microscopy. Leptospires in tissues can be detected by silver impregnation and immunological staining techniques. Leptospirosis can affect all domestic animals and humans, and can vary in severity from mild infections of the urinary or genital tract to serious systemic disease. They are usually excreted in urine. Leptospirosis is a serious zoonotic disease.

Leptospira has several pathogenic species, including Leptospira kirschneri, Leptospira interrogans, Leptospira noguchii, Leptospira borgpetersenii, Leptospira santarosai and Leptospira weilii. These species are divided into over 250 different serovars in 23 different serogroups. Serologically similar leptospires can belong to different species; for example, serovar hardjo belongs to two species interrogans and borgpetersenii, because common surface antigens are shared by the two species which are genetically separate.

This disease is on the list of diseases notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). The distribution section contains data from OIE's WAHID database on disease occurrence. Please see the AHPC library for further information on this disease from OIE, including the International Animal Health Code and the Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines. Also see the website: www.oie.int.

Distribution

For current information on disease incidence, see OIE's WAHID Interface.

Distribution Map for Africa

Distribution Map for Africa

= Present, no further details    = Widespread    = Localised
= Confined and subject to quarantine    = Occasional or few reports
= Evidence of pathogen    = Last reported...    = Presence unconfirmed

 Distribution Table for Africa

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further information for individual references may be available in the Animal Health and Production Compendium. A table for worldwide distribution can also be found in the Animal Health and Production Compendium.

 Hosts/Species Affected

In maintenance hosts the disease is often mild or latent, and there is prolonged excretion of the leptospires in urine. Other species that become infected are termed incidental hosts. Incidental hosts are usually less susceptible to infection, develop more severe disease, and are less efficient transmitters of the leptospire to other hosts. The following table shows the maintenance and incidental hosts for serovars of Leptospira interrogans:

The main causes of leptospirosis in pigs and ruminants are the following serovars of L. interrogans:

* Serovar hardjo can be of Leptospira interrogans or Leptospira borgpetersenii. Some authors claim recently that Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo is the commonest cause of bovine leptospirosis, whereas earlier literature considers that Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo is the commoner cause (Naiman et al., 2001).

Host Animals

Systems Affected

Reproductive - Large Ruminants
Reproductive - Pigs
Reproductive - Small Ruminants
Urinary - Large Ruminants
Urinary - Pigs
Urinary - Small Ruminants

Epidemiology

Cattle that recover from leptospirosis may become carriers and shed the organism in their urine. The organism can colonize the kidneys and cause nephritis and lead to excretion of the bacteria in urine (Yener and Keles, 2001). Cattle can shed leptospirosis in the urine for over 12 months.

If the urine is passed into an environment favourable to the bacteria, for example into moist, shaded areas with moderate temperatures, the bacteria can survive for a number of weeks. Survival in the environment can also be extended if the bacterium is picked up by carrier animals (rats, wild pigs, bandicoots, etc.) which can then re-infect the herd with their urine. Leptospires are able to penetrate the membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes and broken skin. Muddy areas around water troughs, water holes and dams are sites of infection. Pigs can act as long-term carriers of serovars pomona and tarassovi. Therefore leptospirosis is more likely on mixed dairy-pig properties or when feral pigs are present. As well as transmission via urine, sexual transmission is an important source of infection (Heinemann et al., 2000).

Zoonoses and Food Safety

Leptospirosis presents an important zoonotic risk to people working closely with pigs.

Disease Course

Disease in Cattle

Acute leptospirosis is seen mainly in calves. They show signs of fever, anorexia, pass red urine, are jaundiced and many die within 3 to 5 days. Survivors are usually unthrifty for the rest of their lives. Decreased reproductive performance can also indicate the presence of leptospirosis. Leptospirosis can cause stillbirths and abortions in late pregnancy. A cow may show no signs of illness before or after the abortion or stillbirth. Leptospirosis can decrease a calf drop by 40% or more during a bad epidemic. Mastitis may also be caused by leptospirosis. Cows show signs of fever and depression and go off their feed. The udder is flaccid in all four quarters and milk yield decreases. Milk is yellowish and may contain red flecks but usually returns to normal in 4 to 5 days, full production being restored after 2 to 3 weeks. Within a herd where there are cases of acute leptospiral mastitis, a large number of cows will show no signs of disease, but will have a fall in milk production. Several weeks later these cows may then abort.

Cattle that recover may become carriers and shed the organism in their urine. The organism can colonize the kidneys and cause nephritis and lead to excretion of the bacteria in urine (Yener and Keles, 2001; for further discussion, see Epidemiology section).

Leptospira pomona and L. hardjo can cause localized renal infections in young animals, leading to diarrhoea, anaemia, haemoglobinuria and abortion. The kidneys are swollen, with multi-focal petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages that become pale with time. The liver may be swollen, with minute areas of focal necrosis. Petechial haemorrhages in other organs are seen in fulminating cases, however, in the more prevalent Leptospira hardjo infections, the lesions are primarily restricted to the kidneys.

Disease in Pigs

Leptospirosis in pigs causes reproductive losses in breeding herds throughout the world. Losses are due to abortion, stillbirths, weak piglets, and reduced fertility. Pigs are maintenance hosts for serovars of the pomona, australis and tarassovi serogroups, while strains of serogroups canicola, icterohaemorrhagiae, and grippotyphosa are often incidental infections. The most important serovar in pigs is pomona, which is found worldwide. Other serovars found in pigs are tarrassovi, bratislava, canicola, copenhageni, and icterohaemorrhagiae.

Disease Treatment

Treatment includes antibiotic therapy. Administration of streptomycin, chlortetracycline or oxytetracycline in the early stages of infection reduces the number of leptospires in the tissues and the amount of excreted organisms.

Prevention and Control

It is possible to eradicate leptospirosis from infected farms by a combination of vaccination, diagnostic tests, drugs and improved hygiene and biosecurity. The greatest threat to eradication schemes is the introduction of infected animals and contact with infected rodents or wild animals (including contact with feral pigs). Vaccination against leptospirosis is common in pigs and cattle. Most vaccines are formalin inactivated, and contain one or more serovars, with aluminium hydroxide adjuvant. Pregnant cows should be vaccinated promptly with killed vaccine. All cattle aged more than 6 months should be vaccinated, with a booster, after 4 weeks. Cows should have an annual booster at mid-pregnancy or at drying off. A monovalent vaccine against Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo can prevent it colonising the kidneys and greatly reduce excretion of the bacteria (Bolin and Alt, 2001).

For pig farms, control depends on combined use of antibiotic therapy, vaccination, and husbandry (including strict biosecurity with rodent control). Outbreaks should be controlled with streptomycin at 25 mg/kg, and vaccination of at-risk stock, followed by a vaccination programme. If vaccination is not possible, a programme of medicated feed (chlortetracycline or oxytetracycline 600-800g/ton of feed) fed continuously or 'one month on one month off', can be used (Ellis, 1999)

References

African Union-Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources, 2011. Panafrican Animal Health Yearbook 2011. Pan African Animal Health Yearbook, 2011:xiii + 90 pp. http://www.au-ibar.org/pan-african-animal-health-yearbook

Bolin CA, Alt DP, 2001. Use of a monovalent leptospiral vaccine to prevent renal colonization and urinary shedding in cattle exposed to Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 62(7):995-1000; 38 ref.

Ellis WA, 1999. Leptospirosis. In: Diseases of swine, 8th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science, 483-354.

Heinemann MB, Garcia JF, Nunes CM, Gregori F, Higa ZMM, Vasconcellos SA, Richtzenhain LJ, 2000. Detection and differentiation of Leptospira spp. serovars in bovine semen by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Veterinary Microbiology, 73(4):261-267; 15 ref.

Naiman BM, Alt D, Bolin CA, Zuerner R, Baldwin CL, 2001. Protective killed Leptospira borgpetersenii vaccine induces potent Th1 immunity comprising responses by CD4 and gammadelta T lymphocytes. Infection and Immunity, 69(12):7550-7558.

OIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.

OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int

OIE, 2012. World Animal Health Information Database. Version 2. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home

Radostits OM, Blood DC, Gay CC, 1994. Diseases caused by Leptospira. In: Veterinary Medicine: a textbook of the diseases of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. London, UK: Bailliere Tindall, 884-898.

Yener Z, Keles H, 2001. Immunoperoxidase and histopathological examinations of leptospiral nephritis in cattle. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A, Physiology Pathology Clinical Medicine, 48(7):441-447.

Zaki SR, Shieh WJ, 1996. .

Links to Websites

• CFSPH – Fast factsheet
• CFSPH – Technical factsheet
• CFSPH: Animal Disease Information

  "Animal Disease Information" provides links to various information sources, including fact sheets and images, on over 150 animal diseases of international significance.

• Leptospirosis in Cattle – FAO Report
• Leptospirosis – CDC information page
• Leptospirosis – OIE Manual
• Leptospirosis – wetlands information factsheet
• Leptospirosis – WHO information page
• OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals

  The Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Terrestrial Manual) aims to facilitate international trade in animals and animal products and to contribute to the improvement of animal health services world-wide. The principal target readership is laboratories carrying out veterinary diagnostic tests and surveillance, plus vaccine manufacturers and regulatory authorities in Member Countries. The objective is to provide internationally agreed diagnostic laboratory methods and requirements for the production and control of vaccines and other biological products.

OIE Reference Experts and Laboratories

(http://www.oie.int, accessed 5 June 2013)

Sra. Jessica Petrakovsky (1)
Laboratorio de Leptospirosis
Dirección General de Laboratorios y Control Técnico
Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (SENASA)
Avenida Talcahuano N° 1660 (1640)
Martínez, Pcia de Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA
Tel: +54-11 48.36.11.14 int 287 o 299 Fax: +54-11 48.36.11.17 int 288
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Dr Luis Samartino (2)
CICV, INTA
Instituto de Bacteriología
Castelar, Casilla de Correo 77
Morón 1708
Pcia de Buenos Aires
ARGENTINA
Tel: +54-11 46 21 12 89 Fax: +54-11 46 21 17 12
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Dr Lee Smythe
Queensland Health Scientific Services
39 Kessels Road
Coopers Plains
P.O. Box 594
Archefield, Queensland 4108
AUSTRALIA
Tel: +61-7 32 74 90 64 Fax: +61-7 32 74 01 75
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Dr Rudy Hartskeerl
Royal Tropical Institute (KIT)
N.H. Swellengrebel Laboratory of Tropical Hygiene
Division of Health
Department of Biomedical Research
Meibergdreef 39
1105 AZ Amsterdam
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel: +31-20 566 54 38 Fax: +31-20 697 18 41
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Dr William A. Ellis
Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute
Department of Agriculture
Veterinary Sciences Division
Stoney Road
Stormont
Belfast BT4 3SD
Northern Ireland
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel: +44-2890 51 94 41 Fax: +44-2890 52 57 55
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Dr Mark Wilson
National Veterinary Services Laboratories
USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services
P.O. Box 844
Ames, Iowa 50010
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Tel: +1-515 337.73.42 Fax: +1-515 337.75.69
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Date of report: 03/06/2013

© CAB International 2013. Distributed under license by African Union – Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.